Phase III - Training Development

Learning Objectives:

1. Demonstrate the ability to select the appropriate training method(s) based on the type of knowledge, skill and attitude required.
2. Describe the various formats, purposes, procedures, strengths and limitations of the following training methods:
   1. The lecture – to include straight lecture and the discussion method
   2. Technology based training – to include programmed instruction, electronic performance support systems, internet and multimedia.
   3. On the job training – to include apprentice training, coaching and mentoring, cross training and job rotation
   4. Games and Simulations – to include equipment simulators, business games, in-basket techniques, case studies, role playing and behavior modeling.
   5. On-the-Job – to include JIT, apprentice and coaching.

 Selecting the Appropriate Training Method

 The various instructional methods vary in their ability to influence knowledge, skills and attitudes.   

Knowledge: This refers to the information individuals acquire and commit to memory.  There are three levels of knowledge that are important to the process of training. The first level is declarative knowledge.  Declarative knowledge refers to factual knowledge about a subject. An example of this would be to cite the capitals of the states, or knowing the legal requirements for hiring.  The next level of knowledge is procedural.   This level assumes the possession of factual knowledge, but being able to apply it.  As an example, you may know the legal requirements for hiring, but procedural knowledge requires applying this knowledge in the hiring process. It involves a relationship between facts and procedures.  Strategic knowledge is the highest level, requiring the application of facts and procedures toward the achievement of goals.   An example of this is in the process of planning and in the redirection of activities to meet changing situations.

Skills:  A person’s skill is related to how well they are able to perform specific actions such as operating a computer program or piece of machinery, communicating verbally or in writing, or relating to others.  Skills are usually classified as either technical or interpersonal.  Technical skills have two levels of proficiency. The lowest level is compilation, where an individual just learns a task and must think about each step involved. The second level is automatic, where the individual does not have to think about the steps involved.

Attitudes:  Attitudes are beliefs or opinions that influence behavior. In a training environment we are concerned about employee attitudes as they relate to job performance.  Changing a person’s beliefs or opinions is an important facet of training.  Attitudes also relate to motivation and the individual’s selection of goals and amount of effort expended toward achieving goals. 

The following chart provides an overview of the ability of the various training methods to address the different KSA learning

objectives. This table should be viewed as a general guide as factors such as cost, control of training content and learning

processes also need to be considered.

Development Table 1 - Effectiveness of Training Methods

The information in this table is based on the discussions found in Chapter 7, Training Methods  found in

Effective Training by Blanchard and Thacker,  Prentice Hall (1999) .

Lecture

Although this is the most popular way to present information since it is easy to design and implement, it can also be one of the worst methods as it is lockstep, passive, and auditory in nature. This method varies from presenting a discourse (extended speech) on a subject to an exchange of ideas. Always provide plenty of activities to help your learners grasp and understand the subject. When used correctly, lectures can set the stage for deeper learning to take place.

One method that trainers have devised to keep from calling their training a lecture, is to have the learners take turns reading from an handout. Although they call it a discussion, it is still a lecture; the only difference is that now you have the learners lecturing from a canned script. Many learners find this type of training confusing as their comprehension, reading, and listening rates are all quite different. Since the material is in a handout, you would be better off by changing it into a self-study program which meets individual needs. If needed, you can then hold a discussion period to highlight, expand, discuss, and ask for questions. In order for a learning program to be called a discussion, there must be some pre-learning so that an intelligent discussion can take place.

Conventional Classroom Methods  This is used when a large group must be taught the same thing at the same time or the task difficulty requires formal training. Before selecting this type of instruction, ensure that it cannot be taught effectively in another manner due to its high cost. If possible, the instructors that will be teaching the program should help with the development process. This tends to lower the development cost and the initial implementation cost. All lessons should be fully outlined.

Conventional classes can run from a couple of hours to a couple of weeks. Many tend to be large, with 20 to 40 learners, who have varying levels of knowledge, who have varying levels of knowledge and skills. This type of training provides human interaction. If the class is not too large, then the trainer may determine the learners' needs so the instruction can be adapted and adjusted accordingly.

The advantages are classroom setting permits the use of a wide variety of training methods, e.g. video, lecture, simulation; discussion. Also, the environment  be controlled to create a climate conducive to learning and classrooms can accommodate a large number of learners. The main limitations may involve increased costs, e.g. space rental, travel and the classroom may be quite dissimilar to the job setting.

If this type of training is required you have two options. The first is In-House Training where company trainers perform the instruction, either on-site or at another location. The second option is Contract Training, where the trainers are contracted to perform the training at your location, their location, or a separate training site. The two main factors that must be considered when deciding upon In-House or Contract training are: who has the technical expertise to provide the instruction and who can provide the best training at the lowest cost? You must also decide if it will be lock-step or self-paced. In lock-step instruction everyone proceeds at the same pace, where as self-paced instruction allows the learners to proceed at their own pace.

Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)

CBT provides immediately feedback to the learner and presents various levels of multimedia material until the learner reaches mastery. It is also self-paced and can be delivered to the learner's desk. Some disadvantages are some learners find it difficult to work with a computer for long periods of time as they thrive on human interaction. Also, CBT has an extremely long development times due to the complexity of the instruction, although this is beginning to decrease with better authoring tools. 

Games, drills, and simulations can be produced. Games are educational activities presented in a game format. Drills provide practice of materials already learned, in order to strengthen rote knowledge. A simulation models a real situation in which the learner accomplishes a real task.

This type of instruction is generally more expensive to produce, but if it can be used for an extended period, then the cost is greatly reduced as instructors are not needed, travel is eliminated, and the training material can be reused. It should not be used for rapidly evolving technologies as the technology will often change during the long development time of the courseware.

e-learning or Internet Distance Learning (IDL) (Intranet, Online, Networked, Enterprise, or Web) This form of learning has emerged as a cost effective vehicle for reaching learners remotely. IDL is composed of organizational computer networks that use the Internet, World Wide Web technology, and software for finding, managing, creating, and distributing information. Its main limitations are network bandwidth (size of network's transmittal capacity), and the requirement for each learner to be connected. 

This type of media is starting to become a favorite with organizations that have workforces in multiple locations and only require simple learning materials. More complex training requirements will have longer development times as it basically turns into CBT training development.

Simulation

A process of learning new ideas, skills and attitudes through what we do at work or in other behavioral situations. It is about learning from doing, performing, and taking action. Some of the methods or learning strategies it uses are

Equipment – Equipment simulators are mechanical devices that require trainees to use the same procedures, movements, and/or decision processes they would use with equipment back on the job.

Case Studies –  The case study is a description of an organization, its setting and a description of a problem or set of issues facing decision makers. Normally the trainees read the case and develop answers to the questions provided.

Business Games – Business games attempt to represent the way an industry, organization, or sub-unit functions. Trainees are provided with information describing a situation and are asked to make decisions about what to do. The system provides feedback about the impact of their decisions.

In-basket – This technique provides trainees with a packet of written information and requests (memos, letters, reports, etc.) that would typically be handled in a given position. This procedure focuses on decision making skills.

Role play  - This is an enactment of a scenario in which each participant is given a part to act out. Trainees are given a general description of a situation, a description of their roles and the problem they each face.

Behavior Modeling – This technique allows for the trainee to observe others t learn how to do something new. This technique is normally used in conjunction with some other technique. 

On-the Job Training

 OJT has many positive aspects including low cost (employees are producing) and positive transfer of training (the learning and actual job situations are identical).  Ideally, the trainees learn by doing and receive immediate feedback from the performance itself or from supervisors and their coworkers.  OJT can be a failure if the training is done in a haphazard manner.  Wexley and Latham (2002) offer several suggestions for implementing a successful OJT program: (pages 175-180)

1. Trainers must be convinced that training new employees does not threaten their status
2. Trainers must be rewarded for the additional responsibility
3. Trainers and trainees must be paired to minimize differences that inhibit communications and understanding.
4. The choice of trainers should be based on their ability to teach and their desire to take on this responsibility.
5. Trainers should receive training in the use of proper methods of instruction.
6. Trainers should realize that OJT is not an opportunity to exploit others.
7. Trainees should be rotated to compensate for weaker instruction or to take advantage of the special skills of other trainers.
8. Learning should take precedence over production in the early stages.
9. The trainer should realize the importance of close supervision.
10. OJT should be conducted in conjunction with other training methods such as programmed instruction, lectures, CBT, etc.

 Job Instruction Training (JIT)

The process described above is formalized in more detail as the Job instruction technique.  This process was developed during World War II, and is still considered one of the best techniques for implementing OJT.  The basics of instruction are show in the following diagram:

Development Table 2 - Job Instruction Training (JIT)

 Apprentice Training

 Organizations that employ tradespersons normally have approved apprenticeship programs.  These programs are normally approved by the Department of Labor and contain a set of standards that specify the features of a particular program to include the curriculum, number of classroom and workshop hours, and number of hours of on the job experience, etc. 

Coaching

In this method a supervisor, co-worker, peer examines the employee’s performance and provides guidance, feedback, and direction to assure a successful grasp of skills and task completion. The main difference between a coach and a trainer is that coaching is done on the job.  Wexley and Latham (2002) (pages 185-186) recommend the following when conducting coaching sessions:

1.      Employees should participate in the development of the process.

2.      Specific performance improvement goals vs. general goals should be set.

3.      Specific improvement goals should be mutually set by the coach and employee.

4.      The coach’s attitude must be constructive and supporting

5.      Criticism should be avoided unless used to justify disciplinary actions.

6.      Feedback should be provided on both behavior and results.

Audiovisual Enhancements to Training

 Having the appropriate type of media for each part of the training session is important to the development of the training program. The following table shows the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods:

This chart is based on the information found in Effective Training by Blanchard and Thacker, Table 5.7, page 358.

Evaluating the Costs of Training

 In your initial identification of the problem, you should have made some calculations when you asked the question: “Is the problem worth fixing?” The related question is: “Is the cost of training worth it?”   

Types of Training Costs:

1. Development costs – includes the TNA, design time, program, materials and related costs. These are amortized over the life of the training.
2. Direct Costs – include the delivery of the program to include travel, facilities, food, equipment rental, trainer compensation, etc.
3. Indirect Costs – include marketing expenses, administrative overhead, clerical support, etc.
4. Overhead costs – these include a share of the general operating costs of the training and development department.
5. Participant Compensation – the salary and benefits of the participants should be included as a cost of training.  Another way to look at it is the cost of replacing those employees while they are in training.

 Examples of Revenue Produced by Training

• Increased sales, higher productivity, reduced errors, client retention and employee retention

Calculating the Return

 Revenue produced by training – Cost of training = Total return on training investment.

 Calculating Return on Investment (ROI)

 Selecting the Trainer

 Once the decision has been made to design the training program and the appropriate media, selecting a trainer is the next step.  Effective trainers must be able to communicate their knowledge clearly, use various instructional techniques, have good interpersonal skills, and have the ability to motivate others to learn.  Other than contracting with an outside vendor, less qualified trainers can be assisted through one of the following methods:

1. Teaming skilled trainers with in-house subject matter specialists to form an instructional team.
2. Train-the-trainer program, which involves selecting an in-house expert and training them to become an effective trainer.
3. Using a training technique that does not require an instructor, such as programmed instruction or computer-aided programs.

 References used for this discussion:

Blanchard, P. Nick and James W. Thacker, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies and Practices, Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ 07458 (1999)

Wexley, Kenneth N. and Gary P. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organization, 3rd Edition, Prentice hall, Uppersaddle River, NJ 07458 (2002)

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