Phase II - Training Design
  Learning Objectives:
  1. Describe the purpose of objectives, the criteria for evaluating objectives and the advantage of developing objectives.
  2. Write an objective that meets the criteria for an effective objective and accurately reflects needs analysis data.
  3. Be able to identify organizational constraints and strategies for dealing with them.
  4. Describe the factors that will facilitate learning and transfer.

           In the last phase, you have identified the training and development needs (KSAs) and will use this information to develop training objectives, identify organizational constraints, identify factors that will facilitate learning and transfer, and select an appropriate training design.

 Developing Objectives

 In this discussion we will use the term learning objectives to describe the KSAs that trainees are expected to acquire throughout the training program.  There are other types of objectives that are frequently associated with developing a comprehensive training program such as trainee reaction objectives, transfer of training objectives and organizational outcome objectives. Ideally, a training program should include all four levels of objectives to make the program fully compatible with the evaluation phase.  While the content of various types of objectives differ, the structure and process of developing effective training objectives is the same.  An effective objective has three components (Mager 1997:

  • The desired performance - the objective should always state what a learner is expected to be able to do.  This should be some action that can be observed.
  • The conditions - This identifies the conditions under which the outcome expected to occur or the task is performed.
  • The criteria -  This identifies the standard of acceptable performance.

 The desired performance or behavior must be clearly stated.  Anyone reading the objective should be able to understand what will be demonstrated when the trainee has acquired the necessary KSAs.  Often the desired performance is based on a task or subtask in the employees’ job description.

 A description of the conditions under which the performance must occur is further clarification of what is expected.  An example of a condition might describe the use of certain equipment (e.g., ohmmeter, telephone, computer), the assistance provided (e.g., job aid or checklist), the environment (e.g., inclement weather, hostile customer). 

The criteria specifies the standards established for successful completion. They are usually represented by accuracy, quality and speed.  Accuracy could be expressed in terms of distance, such as milling an objective within .001mm of the specifications. Quality specifications could be expressed by a statement that an object will be welded without defect 99.5% of the time.  A standard based on speed could be expressed that a given task will be completed within 10 minutes.

 Considerable effort needs to be given to developing effective training objectives.  The objectives provide the trainee with information on what is expected to successfully complete the training.  Objectives will increase the likelihood that the trainees will achieve the objectives (Locke et. al, 1981).  The objectives guide the designer of training in choosing appropriate techniques and methods as well as criteria for student outcomes. With clear objectives the instructor can facilitate the learning process more effectively, determining the progress of each learner.  Finally, the objectives form the baseline for evaluating the effectiveness of the training.  For detailed guidelines of writing training objectives go to the following Web page and download the Department of Education (DOE)  Handbook Developing Learning Objectives. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-tref.htm#dod

 Organizational Constraints

 There are often many constraints that must be considered in the design of a training program.  Blanchard and Thacker (1999) (page 190) provide a list of common constraints and strategies for dealing with them:

Design Table 1 - Constraints

Constraint

Strategy

Trainees vary in amount of experience

Consider modularized training

Trainees vary in ability

Consider programmed instruction

New hires and employees to learn new procedure

Consider different training programs

Long lag time between end of training and use of skill

Program practice and consider use of model

Short lead time

Consider outside consultant or packaged training

Few trainees at any one time

Considered programmed instruction

Few trainees and limited funds

Consider joining a consortium

Mistakes are costly

Consider a simulator

Maximizing the Trainee’s Learning

 The following discussion is based on Chapter 4 “Maximizing the Trainee’s Learning,” Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations, 3rd edition, Kenneth N. Wexley and Gary P. Latham, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2002.

 Wexley and Latham state that the main questions of interest are:

  1. Is the individual trainable?
  2. How should the training program be arranged to facilitate learning?
  3. What can be done to ensure that what was learned during training will be retained and transferred to the job?

 Facilitation of Learning and Transfer

 After the training objectives have been written, the design phase moves into structuring the course to accommodate the factors that facilitate learning and transfer. Design Tables 2, 3 & 4 have been prepared that incorporate Wexley and Latham’s (2002) discussion of Chapter 4 and other generally accepted factors.

 Trainability

 The largest component of training costs is usually the labor cost of the trainee, therefore cost savings in training can be achieved through a reduction in training time, which can be achieved by selecting and retaining in training only those who are trainable, (Wexley and Latham).

 Trainability relates to the individual’s ability and motivation. (Wexley and Latham) These are factors that are normally found to be associated with the trainees’ capacity to learn.  Among these are reading level, educational level, educational preparation, general intelligence, cognitive ability, learning strategy and learning anxiety.

Wexley and Latham emphasize an individual’s motivation.  They discuss the need for achievement, level of career interest, and agreement with their skill weakness on which their training assignment was made. Associated with this is the individual’s expectance that participation in training will lead to the desired outcome.

 Trainability tests have been developed and validated for predicting an untrained applicant’s subsequent success in training and job performance.  Wexley and Latham)

Design Table 2 - Facilitation of Learning: Focus on The Trainee

Learning Process

Action Required

Which Means:

Trainability

Screening or testing

1.       Select only those with the aptitude or skills to perform the required tasks.

2.       Miniature job training and evaluation

Expectancy

Motivation

1.       Explain job related benefits

2.       Focus on achievable objectives

3.       Focus on critical steps

 In the remainder of Chapter 4, Wexley and Latham discuss the “arrangement of the training environment.”  The focus is on conditions external to the learner. The following tables contain variables that the training designer must consider.

 Design Table 3 - Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Training Design

Learning Process

Action Required

Which Means:

Attention

Eliminate Distractions

1.       Room conditions

2.       Seating

3.       Scheduling

4.       Refreshments

Maximize Similarity

Identical elements

Make the elements in the training design identical to the work setting – better the transfer

Conditions of Practice

Active Practice

The opportunity to practice what is being taught. Practice works best with small doses of errors, when trainees are given advice before actual performance, have mastery goals that focus on process as well as outcome, practice in environment that simulates the job.

 

Whole vs. Part Learning

Do you learn parts of the task or the whole task at once. Whole method preferred when (1) intelligence of trainees high (2) tasks low in complexity (3) Practice is spaced

 

Over learning

Providing trainees with continued practice far beyond the point when the task has been performed successfully several time.

 

Massed vs. Distributed

Distributed practice is better for learning motor skills, and for those with lower trainability.  The benefits are less clear when training involves declarative knowledge.

 

The size of the unit to be learned (Whole vs. Part Training)

Task complexity and task organization dictate whether to use (1) Whole training (2) Pure-part Training or (3) Progressive Part Training

 

Sequencing training sessions

Skill acquisition occurs in three stages (1) declarative learning (2) knowledge compilation, and (3) procedural zed knowledge

Feedback

Knowledge of the results

Providing verbal praise, test scores, productivity reports or performance measures promotes learning and motivation. Feedback should be part of the training design.

Meaningfulness of the Material

Material that is rich in associations for the trainee

1.       Provide an overview of material

2.       Use examples

3.       Sequence material in a logical order

4.       Attain simple skills before presenting complex

Vary the Situation

General principles

For strategic knowledge, provide a general set of principles, then vary the settings for application.

Individual Differences

Provide alternative modes of instruction

1.       Trainees differ in ability, motivation, and interest

2.       Trainees have varying learning styles

3.       Trainees differ in experience

Relapse Prevention

Awareness of Risks

Provide trainees with a plan to deal with ways to deal with the pressures of going back to the “old way of doing things” 

Goal Setting

 

Set goals for transfer of training in the workplace. Make part of relapse prevention strategy.

Design Table 4 - Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Organizational Intervention

Intervention

Action Required

Supervisor Support

Provide support to trainees who demonstrate the appropriate behaviors. Alleviate adverse conditions that can result from attending training

Peer Support

Experienced peers can periodically evaluate and assist trainees.

Trainer Support

Continued involvement of the trainer on the job, such as sitting in, observing, and assisting.

Reward Systems

Establish systems/steps to reward and reinforce desired behaviors

Climate and Culture

Positive attitudes of upper management regarding training to include policies and reward systems.  Understanding that learning is part of the job.

Outcomes of Training Design

 To develop an effective training program it is essential to develop effective objectives and understand how to maximize learning and transfer.  F  At this stage you will be able to select the appropriate training methods to achieve your learning objectives and develop a program to evaluate the outcomes of your training program.

 Preparing Instructional Objectives – Checklist

 

1.         Derivation of training objectives?

·         Task listing - any job has a listing of tasks

·         Task analysis - diagram the steps and key decisions of the task

·         Skill derivation - what would anyone have to know before being ready to perform the entire task

·         Objectives drafting - this describes the performance desired, the conditions under which the performance should occur, and the level of skill required.

·         Skill-hierarchy drafting - what skills need to be mastered before another can be profitably practiced.

 

2.         Three characteristics of useful objectives:

·         Behavior - an objective always states what a learner is expected to be able to do and/or produce to be considered competent (What do I want the students to be able to do?)

o        Be able to ride a bike

·         Conditions - an objective describes the important conditions under which the performance is to occur. (What are the important conditions or constraints under which I want them to perform?)

o        Given a product and prospective customer, be able to describe the key features of the product.

·         Standards - a objective describes the criteria of acceptable performance, that is, it says how well someone would have to perform to be considered competent. (How well must students perform for me to be satisfied?)

o        Given a computer with word-processing software, be able to write a letter, with no spelling or punctuation errors.

 

3.         Objectives Checklist:

o        Behavior

o        Is your main intent stated?

o        If the main intent is covert (mental), is an indicator behavior stated?

o        Is that indicator behavior the simplest and most direct one you can think of?

o        Conditions

o        Have you described what the learner will be given, or be deprived of, during performance of the objective?

o        Have you described all of the conditions that will influence the shape of the performance?

o        Standards

o        Have you described how well the learner must perform to be acceptable?

o        Do those criteria describe some aspect of the performance, or the product of the performance, rather than instructional process or meaningless percentages?

o        When a percentage is indicated in a criterion, does it reflect a realistic expectation?

Resources used for this discussion:

Mager, Robert F., Preparing Instructional Objectives, 3rd Ed. Center for Effective Performance, Atlanta GA 30341 (1997)

Wexley, Kenneth N. and Gary P. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations, 3rd Ed. Prentice hall, Uppere Saddle river, NJ 07458 (2002)

 

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